Wikipiidia

Tiis

Tiig anɛ zʋkanɛ nɔbʋgʋd yʋma bɛdigʋ ka mɔr til, ka di mɔr wila nɛ vaand. Zi’esieba nii, ba ye tii anɛ zʋbanɛ mɔr daad ka yuugid ka naan nɔbʋgid, zʋbanɛ ka ba mɔri tʋm anɛ lumber bɛɛ banɛ mɔr wa’alim si’a bɛn. Ti ya’a gɔsi di gbin yalʋŋ pʋʋgin anɛ abɛ tiis banɛ wa’am, tree ferns, kodu nam, nɛ bamboos wʋsa anɛ tiis.

tree
organisms known by a particular common name, first-order class, plant life-form
Subclass ofwoody plant, phanerophyte Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Part ofphanerophyte, forest Dɛmisim gbɛlima
This taxon is source ofwood Dɛmisim gbɛlima
Studied inforestry science, dendrology Dɛmisim gbɛlima

Tiig gbinni an si’em

dɛmisim gbɛlima

La’anɛ "tiigi" an pian’ʋk kanɛ an na’ana’ la, dunia ni wʋsa pʋ mɔr dinɛ ka ba na nɔki pa’al tiig gbinni an si’ela, zʋʋd nam yɛla bɛɛ buudi pian’ad nii.[1][2] Fʋ ya’a tɛn’ɛsi lalig, tiig anɛ zʋkanɛ nɔbʋgʋd yʋma bɛdigʋ ka mɔr til, ka di mɔr wila nɛ vaand. Zi’esieba nii, ba ye tii anɛ zʋbanɛ mɔr daad ka yuugid ka naan nɔbʋgid,[3] zʋbanɛ ka ba mɔri tʋm anɛ lumber bɛɛ banɛ mɔr wa’alim si’a bɛn.[4] Ti ya’a gɔsi di gbin yalʋŋ pʋʋgin anɛ abɛ tiis banɛ wa’am, tree ferns, kodu nam, nɛ bamboos wʋsa anɛ tiis. Tiis wa’alim zɛm si’em mɛ pa’an ban an si’em, ka tibanɛ an bʋmbaanlʋg nwɛnɛ din yi nɛɛm dʋ’ali anu (0.5) paae mita piiga (10) m (1.6 to 32.8 ft) ti buoni ba nɛ tituud,[5] tibanɛ mɔr nya’ar yinne ma’aa mɛ paas tiis ni amaa ba buudi pʋ zu’oe;[6] Ka Joshua tree, bamboo nɛ abɛ tiis pʋ mɔr sida daad bɛɛ nwɛɛlimi giligida,[7][8] ba tun’e tis dinɛ nwɛnɛ daad dɔlisid ban nan nɔbʋgid la ni.[9] Tiis buudi nwɛnɛ Dracaena, la’anɛ ban mɔr nya’ar yinne la, ba pʋ mɔr nɔbʋgʋr ya’asa ka di yinɛ bat il la ni, amaa ka bɛɛ ba kɔn’ nɛ tibanɛ mɔr nya’a ayi bɛɛ babʋg tilli ɛɛnti bɛdim si’em la.[10]

Tibɛda nwɛnɛ papaya nɛ kodu tiis wusa paas tiis ni.[2][11]

Ti ya’a yis tiis zi’esim an si’em pa’an tiis gbinni an si’em, ti mɛ tun’e pa’al tiis gbinni an si’em ka di yii ba tʋʋma ni; ba tituunli anɛ tibanɛ tisid lumber.[12]

 
Nilig tiig

Botany dinɛ an tiis zamisʋg lʋgʋr la nii, tiis anɛ dinɛ zi’e nɛ vama’asa dinɛ bɛ saŋa wʋsa (sɛɛung ti paae ʋʋn) ka mɔr til wɔk, dinɛ yiti mɔr bɛɛ zanl wila nɛ vaad la[13]. Saŋa bɛdigʋ nidib yiti bigisnɛ tiis gbin giŋa ye li anɛ dinɛ tilla na nyaŋi an dabɛda ka mɛ an dinɛ nɔbigid bɛɛ dinɛ mɔr wa’alim ka na nyaŋi maal taabʋ.

pian'azug la wʋsa gbin.

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Tiig nɛ nɔbigir saŋa mɛkama si'em la anɛ tiakir linɛ bɛɛ ba bɛllim ni ka li yinɛ ba buudi gʋn-gʋn ni: tiis ya'a nɔbig duoe agɔla, li sʋŋid ka ba nyaŋid paad winnig la sʋʋnlʋm bɛɛ nintaŋ ka li nwɛ'ɛdi ba sʋ'ʋŋa.[14] Tiis banɛ duoe agɔla ka wa'am la vʋe nɛ yuugid,[15] ba sieba yuugidi paad yʋma tusa bɛdegʋ.[16] Tiis bɛdegʋ banɛ yuug ka an tikʋda la nam kpɛm bɛ nannana.[17] Tiis mɔr luos sʋma wʋʋ tila banɛ kpi'em ka mɔr cells giŋgaans banɛ tisid paŋ ka sʋŋid ka tiig la yuugid, ka kɛt ka ba zu'odi agɔla ka wa'am gat tiis bɛdigʋ ka vaand yadigid. Ba anɛ ba kɔn' nɛ shrubs banɛ zu'od bɛdegʋ ka mɔr til mɛŋir yinne ka li nwɛnnɛ tiis nɛ,[18] amaa tiis nɛ shrubs nɛ pʋ mɔr giŋgaŋ bɛɛ kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb si'a ka li an vikki la,[19] kɛya ka nidib pʋtɛnda yidig ye tiis bɛdim tʋn'e sie bɛ tɔɔg zin'isin wʋʋ zuoya nɛ subarctic baba. Zin'is kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb ni kɛya ka tiis zi'esim tiak kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb ka li pʋ an nwɛnnɛ ba buudi la an si'em laa, ka dinna an tituunli linɛ pa'an ba wʋsa yinne-yinne n nɔbigid kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb ka li pʋ dɔl taaba si'em. Ka ban gɛlig 60,000 ti paae 100,000 pʋʋgin la, tiis buudi-buudi banɛ bɛ dunia wʋsa ni kal la'as nɛ an wʋʋ pisi nɛ anu kɔnbʋg pʋdigir pʋʋgin.[20][21] Ba bɛdegʋ banɛ zu'oe la zu'odi zin'ibanɛ ka tintaŋ bɛ bɛdigʋ; ka banɛ gɔsid tiis yɛla la nam pʋ keŋ zin'iban nii, ka din ka ba pʋ mi' tiig buudi nɛ ban dɔl taaba si'em.[22]

Tiis tita'am anɛ banɛ puud puum bɛɛ an banɛvka ba daad kpi'em. Ka tiis bi'el banɛ kpɛlim la mɛ an banɛ wan biili bɛɛ tibanɛ ka ba daad pʋ kpi'emma,[23] ka ba sieba anɛ conifers, cycads, ginkgophytes nɛ gnetales banɛ mɔr biili banɛ pʋ bɛ wala pʋʋginnɛ, amaa ka lɛɛ anɛ walbiela lul wʋʋ cones nɛ, ka ba bɛdegʋ mɔri vantɔɔd wʋʋ pine vaanr gɔn'ɔs nɛ.[24] Tiis banɛ wan biili la bɛdegʋ anɛ eudicots, ka li gbin pa'al ye "sida dicotyledons", ba pʋdi li yʋ'ʋr ala bɔzugɔ biili la mɔri cotyledons bɛɛ wal vaanr ayi'. Tisieba mɛ bɛ ka yi tuŋ kʋda banɛ mɔr puum ka li buon basal angiosperms bɛɛ paleodicots; ba sieba anɛ Amborella, magnolia nutmeg nɛ avocado,[25] ka tibanɛ an bambʋʋ nɛ abɛ tiis nɛ bɔɔdia tiis anɛ banɛ ka ba wal mɔr wal-vaʋg yinne ba ni.

Daʋg tisid tiis bɛdegʋ tila zi'esim paŋ ka ba zi'e; nɛ'ɛŋa sʋŋid tiig la ka o zu'od bɛdir. Ka tiis zuunla bɛɛ biinr kɛt ka ku'om, nʋtirɛɛns nɛ bʋn banɛ bɛ wʋsa ka kpɛn'ɛd tiig la luos wʋsa ni, ka lin ya'a kae tiis kʋ nyaŋi zu'oe bʋntitada wʋʋ ban zu'od si'em laa. Tiis nar ka ba fuoɛn ku'om dɔl xylem linɛ bɛ nya'a la ni ka li dɔlisidi vɔnbibis banɛ ni ka ku'om vɛ'ɛgidi dɔl kpɛn'ɛd la, ka ku'om mɛ kpɛm liebid walim yit vaanr la ni dʋt agɔl ka li yʋ'ʋr buon transpiration la. Ku'om ya'a pʋ zu'oe, vaanr la na kʋdig.[26] Tiis lous atan' banɛ an yɛlkpan anɛ nya'ar nɛ til nɛ vaanr; banɛ an nimmua luos banɛ tɔ'ɔŋ nɛ taaba ka si'el wʋsa zɔti tiingid bɛɛ giligid tiig zin'ig wʋsa ni. Tiis nɛ tibibis banɛ mɔr daad la,vascular cambium la kɛt ka luos banɛ tɔ'ɔŋ ka ku'om dɔli li ni tiingid tiig ka kɛt ka daad bɛ la zu'od bɛɛ yaligid. Bɔzugɔ nɔbigir kaŋa san'am nɛ til la pa'ad, tibanɛ an dakpi'ema la mɔr Cork cambium ka li nɔbigid bɛ phloem la ni. Cork cambium la kɛt ka cork cells la kpi'em ka nyaŋi gu' tiig la nindaa ka ku'om kʋ pɔ'ɔgi li nii. Daad bɛɛ wila nɛ pa'ad nɔbigir anɛ nɔbigir linɛ ti'al ayi'.[27]

Tiis anɛ banɛ bus ala yʋʋm la wʋsa ni, ka mɔr vaanr linɛ pʋ kʋdigida ka kpɛn aan ala ma'asa-ma'asa yʋʋm la wʋsa ni,[28] bɛɛ kʋdig ka ba vaanr sʋʋd ba zu'or saŋa naar wʋsa ni ka kpɛm zi'e ala ka vaand pʋ bus baa bi'ela.[29] Conifers bɛdegʋ anɛ banɛ ka ba vaanr pʋ sʋʋgida, amaa larches (larix nɛ pseudolarix) anɛ banɛ ka vaanr sʋʋd lut, ka ba gɔn'ɔs lut teŋin sʋʋgid saŋa wʋsa, ka cypress tiis buudi sieba (Glyptostrobus, Metasequoia nɛ Taxoduim) sʋʋd vaanr bi'ela yʋʋm wʋsa ka li yʋ'ʋr buon cladoptosis la. Tiisi na zu'oe mik bɛdegʋ anɛ ba wila nɛ vaanr na nɔbigi yadig gɔl la, ka bɛɛn kanɛ zu'oe gat sian'arin la anɛ tiis gum banɛ la'asi zu'oe ka li yʋ'ʋr buon canopy la. Tiig kanɛ an bi'ela anɛ tibil.

Abɛ tiis bɛdegʋ banɛ wa'am anɛ tibanɛ ka ba daʋg pʋ kpi'emma ka ba kpiid tɔ'ɔtɔ,[30] nɛ monocots banɛ pʋ zu'od pɛ'ɛsid ayi' ya'asɛ ka mɛ kʋ mɔr daadɛ.

Pʋʋb

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Tiis banɛ bɛ dunia ni wʋsa kanl kanɛ yi yʋʋm tusa ayi nɛ piinɛ anu (2015)ni na la pa’al ye ba anɛ , 3.04 trillion, ka 1.39 trillion dinɛ an pisnaasi nɛ ayuibʋ kɔbiga pʋʋgin (46%) la bɛ sub-tropics, nɛɛm du’al pisyuobʋ nɛ yinne (0.61) trillion ka kɔbiga pʋʋgin an pisi (20%) mɛ bɛ zin’ibanɛ ka nintaŋ bɛ, nɛɛm dʋ’ali ayɔpɔi (0.74) trillion dinɛ zɛm nɛ pisi nɛ anaasi kɔbiga pʋʋgin (24%) la mɛ bɛ coniferous boreal forests. Kanl kaŋa anɛ nwɛnɛ nɔɔra anii gaad kʋdʋmin kanl la, ka mɛ dɔlis zi’esim atan mak paalʋ kanɛ labisim gaŋ Tusa kɔbisnaasi (400,000). Di anɛ bʋnkanɛ nwɛnɛ gbɛlʋŋ la zu’oenɛ bɔzugɔ makir zanbin kaŋa bɛdigʋ yinɛ Europe nɛ North America na. kanl kaŋa pa’al ye tiis nwɛnɛ dinɛ gaŋ biliyɔnnam piinɛ anu (15 billion) ka ba nwwadi basid yʋʋm wʋsa ni ka ba lɛɛ sɛɛd tiis nwɛnɛ biliyɔnnam anu (5 billion) yʋʋm pʋʋgin. Yʋma tusa piinɛ ayi (12,000) banɛ gaad la ninsaalibi pin’il kuob nɛ gʋ’ʋl la, tiis banɛ da bɛ dunia ni la sienɛ nwɛnɛ pisnaasi nɛ ayuobʋ kɔbiga pʋʋgin (46%).[31][32][33][34] Tiis buudi banɛ ka nidib mi’ na nwɛnɛ tusa pisyuobʋ nɛ anaasi nɛ kɔbiga (64,100) dunia wʋsa pʋʋgin. Ka pisnaasi nɛ atan kɔbiga pʋʋgin (43%) yi tiis buudi ni wʋsa bɛ, South America ka mɔr tiis buudi kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb gaad zin’ig wʋsa, ka teŋkanɛ dl anɛ Eurasia, banɛ mɔr tiis buudi la pisi nɛ ayi kɔbiga pʋʋgin (22%), ka Africa mɔr tiis buudi la piinɛ ayuobʋ kɔbiga pʋʋgin (16%), North America mɔrnɛ piinɛ anu kɔbiga pʋʋgin (15%), ka Oceania mɛ mɔr piinɛ yinne kɔbiga pʋʋgin (11%).[35]

Tembanɛ an sʋm, nwɛnɛ Daintree Rainforest dinɛ bɛ Queensland la, bɛɛ podocarp nɛ broadleaf forest banɛ bɛ  Ulva Island, New Zealand la ya’a la’as taaba, tiis ya’a la’as anɛ climatic climax community zʋʋd vʋm naarin wʋsa, zin’ikanɛ bɛ paalʋ anɛ dinɛ ka tiwa’a ɛɛnti faaen zin’ig la, ka yɔ’ɔg suor ka tiis bɛdigʋ yi ani na lusi agɔl la wʋsa.[36][37]

Zin’ibanɛ ka waad bɛ, conifers nam ɛɛnti zu’oe anina; zin’ikan an zin’isʋŋ hali bɛ north tis northern hemisphere anɛ taiga kanɛ bʋk bɛɛ northern coniferous forest (ka ba buon ye boreal forest).[38][39] Taiga an dunia wʋsa tenkanɛlabis ka ba buon biome, ka an pisi nɛ awai kɔbiga pʋʋgin (29%) yi dunia wʋsa tiis la ni.[40] Tʋʋlʋg kanɛ zu’oe north la kɛ tiis nɛ zʋʋd pʋ nɔbigod tɔ’ɔtɔ winnig ya’a tans bɛɛ nintaŋ ya’a zu’oe gaad yʋ’ʋŋ.

Nɛɛsim anɛ dinɛ pʋ zu’oe ka mɛ tun’ɔn pʋ paae tibanɛ an bʋmbibis sʋ’ʋŋa tiis la teŋinɛ, la’anɛ fungi tun’e zu’oe zin’igin la.[41] wala mɛnɛ tiis banɛ bɛ zuoya ni zin’ikanɛ ka altitude la kɛ ka tʋʋlʋg la sie ka ta’as ka tiis nɔnʋgir saŋa sied mɛn.[42]

Zin’ikanɛ ka saa ni din nar si’em gilig sʋ’ʋlim nam la wʋsa, temperate broadleaf nɛ mixed forest banɛ ka tibanɛ bɛ ani an gungum, beech, birch nɛ maple ma’aa bɛ la.[43] Tiis banɛ ni ka tʋʋlʋg bɛ tita’am bɛnɛ southern hemisphere la ni, nwɛnɛ Eastern Australia tiis la, ka tibanɛ bɛ ani buudi an Eucalyptus nɛ acacia woodland.[44]

Tropical region nam mɛ mɔrnɛ monsoon bɛɛ dinɛ nwɛnɛ monsoon tʋʋlʋg la, zin’ikanɛ ka babkanɛ kʋdʋg la tia’asid nɛ babkanɛ an ma’asʋg la bɛ Amazon rainforest ni, tibanɛ mɔr vanyalima bɛ tiis la ni bɛdigʋ, ka ba sieba an banɛ an deciduous.[45] Tropical region nam banɛ mɔr savanna climate kanɛ kʋdʋg ka saa pʋ niid bɛdigʋ sʋŋid tiis la, agɔl la pʋ ligilɛ, ka nintaŋ bɛdigʋ pʋ paad teŋkanɛ ka mɔɔd nɛ tituud bɛ la. Acacia nɛ tɛ’ɛdi an tibanɛ ka nidib mɔri kuli sɛ’ ba yaan.[46]

Tiig luos

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Nya'a

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Tiig nya'a an banɛ ba' teŋin kiŋ-kiŋ ka fuond bɛɛ vɛ'ɛgid ku'om nɛ kʋ'ʋlʋm yit teŋin la ka li dʋt tiingid bɛɛ paad tiig la luos wʋsa. Li tʋʋma anɛ li busid yit tiig ya'as, ka gu'ud tiig la, ka kɛt ka tiig la vʋe ka mɛ lɛn sʋŋid tiig la nɛ paŋ, nɛ bʋn sʋma banɛ bɛ. Nya'adaʋg bɛɛ nya'ar ita'ar kanɛ tɔn sig teŋin teŋir la an biilif la yiiga lua kanɛ yi li ni biilif la ya'a tans bul yina. Nya'ar kaŋa nɔkid lieb nya'ar tita'ar ka nya'abibis banɛ bɛ wʋsa tɔn yii li ni n sig teŋin. Bakɔi nya'aŋ bi'ela ka nya'abibis bama yʋ'ʋn nɔbig yii ba zin'igin zulum gaŋ agɔl titan bɛɛn la sig teŋin . Tiis bɛdegʋ sieba ni nya'ar tita'ar la yiti bɛnɛ ala hali ti paae saŋa si'a ka pɔn'ɔe ka kɛ ka nya'a banɛ tɔn yii li ni la kpɛlim. Nya'azuobir yiti tɔn nyirr bɛ nya'ar kanɛ an tii la kpikpɛmis. Ka Nya'azuobir ban la nyaŋidi tabin titan la na'ana ka vɛ'ɛgid ku'om nɛ kʋ'ʋlʋm wʋʋ potassium linɛ buoɛ gɛndig sʋ'ʋŋa. Nya'a la bɔɔdi ninsaal vʋm pɛbisim ye li kɛ ka tiig la vʋ'ʋs kpɛn'ɛs ka vʋ'ʋs yiis na, ka li anɛ tibanɛbuudi an wʋʋ mangroves nɛ pond cypress ma'a na nyaŋ bɛ ku'om baba ka vʋe.[47]

Titan la ni, nya'a la nyɛti bʋnvʋl banɛ an hyphae la. Ka ba bɛdegʋ anɛ mycorrhiza ka kɛt ka nya'a la mɔr tʋmmir nɛ taaba. Sieba anɛ ba kɔn' tis tisieba ma'a, ka li kʋ nyaŋi nɔbig ka mycorrhiza ya'a kae. Sieba kpanb nɛ tis tiis buudi wʋsa. Tiig bɔɔdi kʋ'ʋlʋm wʋʋ phosphorus linɛ yit bʋnvʋlnam ni na, ka bʋnvʋlnam pɔn'ɔsʋm bɛɛ kʋ'ʋlʋm mɛ mɔr carbohydrate bʋn linɛ an photosynthesis ka yi tiisin la.[48] Wilbibis banɛ ka bʋnvʋya dɔli li ni la tʋn'e nyaŋi kɛ ka tiis kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb tɔ'ɔŋ nɛ taaba, ka kʋ'ʋlʋm bɛɛ ninku'om na pin'ili yi zin'isi'a keŋ zin'isi'a ni.[49] Bʋnvʋlnam banɛ bɛ la sʋŋidi tiis nya'a nɔbigir ka gu'ud tiig la ka bʋnkɔnbid nɛ si'elnam kʋ san'ami baa. Li mɛ lɛn tʋn'e sʋŋ ka dian'ad kʋ nyaŋi mɔr daʋŋ bɛɛ san'aʋŋ kenaa.[50] Yɛlkʋda gbana di kasɛta pa'al ye nya'a la mɔr tʋmmir nɛ mycorrhiza hali Paleozoic pin'ilʋg saŋa yʋma tusa-tusa kɔbisnaasi banɛ gaad la ni sa, saŋa kanɛ ka vascular tiis da yi di'e pipiiris wʋsa la.[51]

Tisieba banɛ an wʋʋ guŋ (Alnus nuud) mɔr kpinnim nɛ frankia tiis buudi banɛ mɔr bʋnvʋlnam banɛ nyaŋid gban'ad nitrogen yit pɛbisim ni ka tiakidi li ka li liebid ammonia. Ba mɔr nya'a banɛ mɔr kpikpina ka bʋnvʋlnam la bɛ. Nɛ'ɛŋa kɛt nɛ ka tiig la bɛ ka nitrogen an bi'ela ka o kʋ nyaŋi nɔbigɛ.[52] Tiig la niŋgbiŋ linɛ kɛ ka luos wʋsa tʋm nɛ taaba ka li yʋ'ʋr buon cytokinins la dɔlisid suokanɛ an wʋʋ mycorrhoza la'aʋŋ la n naamid nya'a banɛ an kpikpina la.[53]

Labaya pa'al ye tisieba tɔ'ɔŋ nɛ taaba ka li dɔli ba nya'a la ni, ka yʋ'ʋn bɛ taaba nu'usin. Tiis la nya'a nɛ wila nɛ til zu'oe bɛɛ la'am nɔbigid nɛ taaba la kɛ ka tɔ'ɔŋir la bɛ ba sʋʋgin. Ka makir linɛ ye li pa'al tɔ'ɔŋir kaŋa anɛ ban na zaŋ tiima kuns ba, hali saŋsi'a bɛ ka li anɛ radioactive ka ba nɔkidi kpɛn'ɛsid tiig la ka limisid saŋa mɛkama gɔsidi tiakir nɛ tibanɛ bɛɛ ani la.[54]

Nya'a wʋsa anɛ tiig pʋʋgin bɛɛ gbinnin luos banɛ ba' teŋin, amaa tiis buudi sieba bɛ ka mɔr nya'a ka tɔn agɔl bɛɛ ka nya'a la bɛ yiiŋ. Yɛlkpan linɛ bɛ nya'a banɛ bɛ yiiŋ la anɛ yɛla ayi' , ka yiiga anɛ ye sʋŋ ka tiig la zi'e kiŋ-kiŋ, ka sʋŋ ka tiig nyɛ pɛbisim yii agɔl. Tibanɛ mɔr nya'a bama ka li sʋŋid kɛt ka tiig nyaŋid zi'e kiŋ-kiŋ la anɛ red mangrove tiis banɛ tɔn nya'a gilig li zin'igin la ka til nɛ wila nɔbig ka mɔr zi'esim sʋ'ʋŋa, ka yʋ'ʋn tɔn sig teŋin.[55] Indian banyan la zi'esim mɛ nɔbigid nɛ ala nɔɔ.[56] Tiis bɛdegʋ mɔr nya'a banɛ tɔn yi til la ni n tiɛn gilig teŋin la wʋsa. Nɛ'ɛnam sʋŋid tiig la ka li nwɛnnɛ ti'edis ayi' linɛ gu'u li kpikpɛmis ka zi'e kiŋ-kiŋ, ka pɛbisʋg kʋ nyaŋi daam. Tibama buudi taan bɛnɛ sian'ar linɛ ka saa niid pamm ka titan la pʋ mɔr kʋ'ʋlʋm ka nya'a la ʋki li'el teŋ la zug.[57]

Tiis buudi sieba bɛ ka ba nya'a tansi ʋk yi yiiŋ na linɛ na niŋ si'em ka pɛbisim paae li, pɛbisim ya'a ti kae pʋʋgin la. Nya'a bama yʋ'ʋr buon pneumatophores ka la'am bɛ nɛ tisieba bɛ black mangrove nɛ Ku'om zin'isin.[58]

Til

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Tiig til bɛɛ li mɛŋ la yɛlkpan anɛ ye li kɛ ka vaanr la nɔbig teŋin la n dʋʋ agɔl, ka tiig la na nyaŋi zu'oe gaad tibanɛ bɛ wʋsa ka nyɛ winnig tintaŋ gaadi ba.[59] Li mɛ ziid ku'om yit nya'a la ni ken paad tiig luos banɛ bɛ la wʋsa ni, ka kɛt ka vaanr la maan disi'a la paae luos la wʋsa la'am nɛ nya'a la.[60]

Li ya'a ken tibanɛ puud ka nyaan wan wala nɛ tibanɛ pʋ puud wan wala ni, til bʋn yiiga anɛ pa'ad banɛ ka ku'om pʋ lɛm bɛɛ li ni la.[61] Ii kɛtnɛ ka tiig la niŋgbiŋ kpi'em, ka gban'e kiŋ-kiŋ ka ku'om kʋ nyaŋi san'am bɛɛ pɔn'ɔe tiig la zin'isi'a. Pa'ad la gu'ud tiig la til ka si'elnam nɛ wiim nɛ bʋnkɔnbid nɛ bugum kʋ paae li san'am. Vɔnbibis bɛdegʋ banɛ ka pɛbisim dɔli ani kpɛn'ɛd ka tiig la vʋ'ʋsid la bɛɛ li ni ka li yʋ'ʋr buon lenticels, ani ka pɛbisim linɛ ka tiis vʋ'ʋsidi tisid ninsaal la dɔli yit. Bɛɛn-bɛɛn paʋk kanɛ buon Cork cambium bɛɛ phellogen la tiasid liebid pa'ad.[62] London plane la (platanus × hispanica) pa'ad kʋdigid nɛ lamma-lamma n lut teŋin. Ala mɛn nɔɔ ka silver birch la pa'ad (betula pendula) pigisid lut teŋin. Tiig la til ya'a ti nɔbig bɛdiri la, saŋkan ka pa'ad paala zu'oe ka pa'ad kʋda la yʋ'ʋn tans ya'ae gaa-gaa. Tisieba ni, wʋʋ guŋ (pinus buudi) la, li pa'ad la ki'iti sin'im ka li yit ka si'elnam kʋ nyaŋi labili ka san'ami lii, ka ala mɛn ka rɔɔba tiis (hevea brasiliensis) la mɛ yit sin'im pielig. Quinine tibanɛ mɔr pa'ad la (cinchona officinalis) mɔri bʋn tɔɔdi li ni ka pa'ad la pʋ malis bɛɛ nyɛlim.[63] Tititada banɛ an wʋʋ tibanɛ ka ba bʋdi ba ka ba tila kpi'em kaŋ-kaŋ ka ba bɛ pteridophyta, Arecales, cycadophyta nɛ poales ni, banɛ sieba an tiig ferns nɛ kpikpaanr nɛ cycads nɛ bamboo ka ba zi'esim nɛ ba niŋgbiŋ an kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb.[64]

Buspaala nɛ ba nɔbigir

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Tiis pʋ kwɛn nɔgigid daar wʋsa yʋʋm mʋm pʋʋginɛ, amaa, li ɛɛnti nɔk nɛ saŋa biela tɔn’ɔ bʋspaala nɔbig ka mɛ mɔr saŋa sieba vʋ’ʋsid. Nɔbigir kaŋa bʋʋdi dɔlnɛ saa niid tɔ’ɔtɔ’ɔ siem; tiig la ɛɛnti bas nɔbigir ka vʋ’ʋs, tɛŋ la ya’a ma’ae galis bɛɛ li kʋdig nɛ galis. Tiis ya’a ti kpɛ’ɛd vʋ’ʋsim saŋa la, ba maan pʋʋm bibis ye li lus tiis la zin’is banɛ busit bus paala la ni. Ba ya’a ti bɔɔd vʋ’ʋsim la, van’ad banɛ busid, vaand banɛ yʋ’ʋn busid la yʋ’ʋn na maal pa’adi lusi ba ya’am la ni, ka kuom kʋ nyaŋi kpɛ’ɛ li. Pa’ad nwa’ pʋʋgin, tiig wila nɛ van’ad pɔla bɛii anina gur ye li nɔbigi bus na, tiig la nɔbigir saŋa ya’a ti lɛn paae. Busib banɛ ka pa’ad lus nwa’ mɛ ɛɛnti maali bɛi tiis wila nɛ ba tila tɛnsʋk, ka gur ye bay is van’ad na. Tiis sieba, wʋʋ eucalyptus, mɔr buspɔla nwa’ ka dinɛ nwɛn wʋʋ pa’adi lʋsid la ka’asigɛ. Ka tiis banɛ ka ba van’ad la kpiɛm, ka ba sieba an Lawson's cypress, mɛ pʋ mɔr bus pɔla nwaa, amaa, ba van’ad banɛ an gbiribiri la ni ka ba ya’am, lɔkanɛ ka ba na bus van’ad pɔla la bɛ.[65]

Tiis la ya’a ti paam paŋ ye ba nyaŋi nɔbig tɔ’ɔ, wʋʋ tʋʋlig saŋa ti paad la nɛ dabisa banɛ ka nintaŋ wa’ami gat yʋ’ʋŋ la, tiis la tɔn’ɔd van’adi tɔlisidi nɔbigid. Wila banɛ sʋ’a pʋʋgin la na tɔn’ɔ yina, ka pa’ad banɛ suad buspaala la lu’ tɛŋ. Nwa’ kɛt ka fɛn’ɛd kpɛlimid wil ban’alis la ni. Yʋʋm pʋʋgin, tiig la tɔn’e nɔk bakwai nɛ bielaa nɔbig. Wil paala la nan pʋ mɔr paŋa ka an dɛ’ɛm ka mɛ lɛn an yɛ’ɛm-yɛ’ɛm. Abɛ tiis mɔri ba van’ad ka li widig tiig la til ni ka lɛɛ pʋ maal wilaa.[65] Tiis sieba bɛi ka saŋkanɛ yʋʋm pʋʋgin ka li an sʋ’ʋm tisiba, ba na lɛn nɔbiga a-bʋyi’ ni, ka ba buon Lammas growth la, ka ninsieba ye lin anɛ sam ka tiig la yɔɔd, bʋn-ian’da banɛ dii li van’ad la zug.[66]

Tiis la yiiga nɔbigir anɛ ba til nɛ nya’a ni. Nɔbigir kanɛ paas ayi anɛ tila la yiŋi na kpɛ’ɛŋ ka maal pa’ad ka mɛ lɛn maal suor ka diib nɛ kuom dɔlisidi paad tiig la wʋsa. Tiis til zin’ig kanɛ an pa’ad-pa’adi la pigisid ka maligim maan bʋnpaala di mɛŋ.[67] Biel-biel ka tiig la nɔbigi paae saŋ sia ka pʋ lɛn nɔbigidi wa’am ya’asɛ. Yɛlsia ya’ naam tiig  la pʋʋg, li tɔn’e maal tiyɔk ka vɔn’ɔr bɛi.[68]

Vaand

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Van’ad anɛ tiig la zin’ig kanɛ diesid nintaŋ la kɛt ka tiig la wan wala, ba tʋnɛ tiig la nil in na niŋ siem ka ba paam pɛbisim bɛdigʋ nɛ nɛɛsim, ka da lʋsid taaba paamigɔ.[69] Anina an tiig la diib sʋa’k zin’ig, linzug ba sieba tɔn’e mɔr gɔn’ɔs bɛɛ mɔr phytoliths, lignins, tannins bɛɛ poisons ka li kɛ ka bʋnvʋya pʋ diti ba wala saa. Tiis maal van’adnam kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb, ka lin yinɛ saa niib nɛ bʋnvʋya na sa’ami ba yela. Van’ad tɔn’ɔ an lamma-lamma bɛɛ baanlif, bʋnbil bɛɛ bʋntita’ar, widig bɛɛ li kuol, saalim bɛɛ mɔr kɔnbilig, bʋgis bɛɛ kpiem, pɔn’ɔdi lit tɛŋin bɛɛ ban kpɛlim bɛ tiig la zugu an dɛ’ɛm. Tiis banɛ busit gɔn’ɔs la la’as nɛ an gbila-gbila amaa, ka lɛɛ an yinnɛ nɛ tiis banɛ ka ba van’ad an lamma la. Ba na nyaŋi vʋʋg, baa ba ya’a bɛi lɔkani ka tiis la pʋ paamid diib titu’a nɛ bɛɛ ka kuom kae. Tɛŋ la ya’a wɛbig, li tɔn’e kɛ ka kuom pa paad tiig la titu’a nɛ, ka tiis bama nwa’ taa bɛnɛ zin’is banɛ ka ma’asim bɛ, gaad tiis banɛ ka ba van’ad an lamma la. Tiis banɛ mɔr van’ baanlis la wʋʋ fir tiis la, ba tila la tɔ’ɔŋ wila la nɛ lin na niŋ sim ka li sʋŋ waad yeal. Amaa, tiis banɛ ka ba van’d an lamma la lɛɛ yadig nɛ ba van’ad la ye li lus nintaŋ yela. Ba dabisa ya’a ti yʋʋg ka tʋʋlig la sied, dinɛ kɛt ka van’ad la an dɛ’ɛm la pʋ lɛm maana, ka li kɛt ka ba ti’ɛsi ti’ɛs wiig nɛ dɔn’bʋʋlim.[69] Tiisi bɔɔd di sieba ka li bɛi van’ad la ni ka ba buon auxin la mɛ pʋ lɛn tʋm tʋʋma ya’asɛ. Nwa’ kɛt ka giin’la banɛ bɛ tiis la van’ad nɛ wila tɛnsʋk la tadigid, nɛ dutir kanna na ti kɔ’ɔk ka van’ad la ianki kɛŋ lʋ tɛŋin. Tɛŋ banɛ ka nintaŋ zuoe la, tiis la bɛdigʋ zalli ba van’ad la yʋʋm wʋsa pʋʋgin. Van’d yin-yin tɔn’e pɔsidi lʋt ka van’ad paala die ba zin’ig la, amaa, van’ad la bɛdigʋ kpɛlim bɛnɛ ala yuugid. Tiis banɛ van’adi pʋ sʋʋgid la ya’a bɛ zin’ig kanɛ ka kuom kae, ba van’ad la na tɔn’si lʋ tɛŋin wʋsa yʋʋm pʋʋgin, li kas-kas anɛ ʋʋn pin’ilig la.[70] Tiis banɛ van’adi tɔsidi lʋt yʋʋm wʋsa la, maan pʋʋm ka van’ad paala nyaan kɛna.[71] Tiis la sieba pʋ mɔri ba mɛŋ sida van’agɔ, ba mɛ mɔr linɛ ka li yiŋ la nwɛn vamɛŋa, ba sieba anɛ Phylloclades – bat til bɛi li kɔn’ɔ[72] – nwɛn wʋʋ ya’am sɔb Phyllocladus nyɛ siem la.[73]

Tibibis yiib

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Tiis biis dɔlisid sisiem bɛɛ bʋnkɔbidin yit na, tita’am nɛ bʋn ian’da. Tiis banɛ wan wala tita’m, ba tibibis dɔlis nɛ bʋn-ian’da nii yit na. sisiem tita’ar da’ad tiis biili agɔla kɛn.[74] Tiis biili dɔlisid suoya bɛdigʋ ka biili nwa widigidi laligid zin’ig. Sieba anɛ sisiem, biili banɛ pʋ tɛbis la. Biili sieba dɔlisid nɛ bʋnkɔnbid ni, tita’am anɛ walbanɛ dit. Sieba mɛ lʋt tiis la gbina ni. Ban tɛbisi bɛɛ agɔl la zug, biili sieba ɛɛnti lʋ tɛŋin widigi die zin’ig.[75]

biili

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Biili ni ka tibibis dolisidi yitna, ka biili nwa bɛ kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb zɛmnim nɛ wannim ni. Bʋnbiili banɛ an bʋnbɛda la sieba anɛ tiis biili, amaa, tiig kanɛ wa’ami gati ba wʋsa, ka buon, Sequoiadendron giganteum, la biili la anɛ bʋnbil.[76] kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb bɛdigʋ dinɛ bɛ tiis wala nɛ ba biili ni la pa’al ye tiakir bɛdigʋ bɛ tiis biili banɛ widigi kɛŋ bul zin’ig sieba nam la. Tiiig bʋnbili na nyaŋi nɔbigi paae titita’ar la, sɛɛ ka di bɛ zin’ig kanɛ ka nɛɛsim bɛ. Tiis biili ya’a lʋ tɛŋin, lin na zabid nɛ bʋnbʋta banɛ bɛɛ anina diib nɛ  kuom yela la, nɛ tiig la mɛŋ ma’asim la an zimm la zug, tibil la kʋ nyaŋi nɔbik sʋ’ʋŋaa. Biili bɛdigʋ wʋʋ birch anɛ bʋnbibis ka mɔri kʋkpama ka li wan wʋʋ paper nɛ ka sisiem na nyaŋi zii ba kɛŋ lalli sa ka ba bul. Ash tiis nɛ maples tiis biili anɛ bʋndɛda ka ba kʋkpama an wʋʋ blade nɛ ka li yaŋidi kɛt ka li ya’ tɔn’ɔsig tiig la zug, ka li na nyaŋi ianki giilim sig tɛŋin, ka ka’ li kpɛn lʋ’ tɛŋin nɛ tɛbisim. kapok tiig anɛ wʋʋ gungum nɛ, ka pɛbisim kpɛ’ɛdi di sʋ’ʋŋa.[77] flame tiig, Delonix regia lɔbigid o biili basid tɛŋin, di lim la ya’a ɛɛnti bʋa’ki pʋdʋg ayi’ nɛ paŋ, li ya’a kʋdʋg.[77] Alder tiis la an gɔŋɔ la, li biili la mɔr kpaam, linɛ na kɛ ka li nyaŋi dɔl kuowiis zugu gaad. Mangroves tiis tita’am nɔbigid nɛ kuomin, ka ba sieba mɔr biel sʋma banɛ ɛɛnti pin’ili bul, ka nan ya’ae tiig la zug.[78][79] bama na nyaŋi pa’an kuowiig zugu kɛn, ka la’as titan gbinin ba’ nya’a.[77]

Biili sieba banɛ an apple pips nɛ plum stones, mɔr nɛ wala bibis wʋʋ hawthorns banɛ mɔr biili ka di bɛ walbanɛ ka ba dit ni; bʋnkɔnbid wʋʋ bani dʋa’t nɛ niis diti li wal la ka lɔbig biili la bas bɛɛ vɔli li kɛŋ nli kɛŋ nyɛ’ɛ ka li dɔl gbinin yina bas lalli sa. Ti biili sieba bun siem maligim anɛ sʋ’ʋŋa, ba ya’a nyɛ’ɛ li bas.[80] Nuts (walbanɛ ya’a kʋdʋg ka la’aŋ ku piki li mɛŋi yis bielif la), niis tɔn’e la’asi ba zii lalig ye ba ti di.[81] Ba ya’a kɛŋ sʋa’ li, ba tɔn’e tam ka pʋ lɛn bɛbi dii li ya’asɛ, dinɛ lus bielif la ka saa nɛ nintaŋ bʋ’ʋd la di na bʋk, ka bielif na bul saa saŋa na.[82] Pine cones biili la, red squirrels ɛɛnti kɛŋ pi’isi ba, ka grizzly bears kɛŋ kadi ba ka ba zɔɔ mɔr biili la lalig tɛŋ, bɛɛ ba kadi ba ka ba zɔ’ ka bas.[83]

Gɔn’ɔs tibiili anɛ biili banɛ ka siel lusi wʋʋ fʋnnʋr nɛ ka ba tita’am biili la pʋ tɛbisa ka wan wʋʋ paper nɛ ka sisiem na nyaŋi da’ae ba ka ba kɛŋ lalli sa, ba ya’a yi’ linɛ lusi ba la ni.[84] Saŋ sieba, bielif la na lus ala gur ye siel piki li yis hali ti paae yʋʋma gba. Bugum mɛ kɛt ka jack pine nyaŋidi pikik ka bun, ka mɛ kɛt ka tiis la gbinin nyɛt kʋ’ʋlim ka ti sieba kʋ nyaŋi yi’ gbinin la mɛ na muk nɛ tiig la kuom nɛ diib yellɛ.[85] Ala buudi mɛnɛ, tiis banɛ maan pʋʋm, ka mɔr biili ka ba bɛi wala pʋʋgin la bɛdigʋka ba sieba an Acacia cyclops nɛ Acacia mangium mɔr biili banɛ bun titu’a nɛ tʋʋlʋg saŋa.[86] Tibanɛ an Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo biloba) tiis bʋʋdi la maani di biili ma’asa ba tiis banɛ an pʋa’b la wil gima zut,[87] ka Gnetum tiis la, maani ba biili ba tila nɛ van’ad tɛnsʋk.[88]

Ba tia’asik la da pin’il si'em

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Tiis banɛ da dɛŋi bɛ anɛ tree ferns, horsetails nɛ lycophytes, banɛ da nɔbigid mɔɔgin Carboniferous saŋa la. Yiiga tiig tɔn’e da an Wattieza, fossils banɛ ka ba da nyɛɛ ba New York state yʋʋm tusayi’, nɛ ayɔpɔi (2007) la, ka li lɛbi da pin’il nɛ Middle Devonian (lin  anɛ wʋʋ yʋʋm millin nam kɔbistan’ nɛ pisnii, nɛ anu, 385 million, banɛ gaad la). Ban da nam zi’ yɛlkaŋa la zug, Archaeopteris ka ba da mi’ yɛ linɛ an yiiga tiig.[89] Tibama ayi’ la da busid nɛ yit na ka pʋ mɔr biili ka ba butta, ka ba gɔs ka yɛ linɛ da tɔ’ɔŋ ferns nɛ gymnosperms, lin mɛ mɔr ala paae Triassic saŋa.Ggymnosperms la sieba an conifers, cycads, gnetales nɛ ginkgos, ka bama nwa’ tɔn’e da kɛna ka li bul nɛ li wan ka ka’ lin nɔɔ nɛ, yʋʋma million nam kɔbistan’ nɛ piinɛ awai (319 million) banɛ gaad la saŋa sa.[90] Ginkgophyta da anɛ tikanɛ da kpɛn zuodi kɛn tuon[91] ka yinne ma’a kanɛ da vʋ’ʋg an maidenhair tiig Ginkgo biloba. Ba gɔs ka tikaŋa anɛ one kpɛn bɛ ka li yʋʋg ka nam bɛɛ o nannaŋin ka pʋ tiakɛ, ka ba da nyɛɛ li bʋʋdi Triassic saŋa ya’aŋ la.[92]

Mesozoic saŋa la (yʋʋma million nam kɔbisyi’ nɛ pisnaasi nɛ anu, kɛŋ paae million nam pisyʋobʋ nɛ ayʋobʋ ,245 to 66 million banɛ gaad la) Conifers bɛɛ tibanɛ mɔr gɔn’ɔs la da nɔbig ya ka yʋ’ʋn nyaŋidi bɛi tɛŋ kpiemisin. Din nya’aŋ la, tiis banɛ pʋʋd pʋʋm mɛ da kɛna, Cretaceous saŋa la. Tibama da pin’ili kat gɔn’ɔs tiis la, Tertiary saŋa (million pisyʋobʋ nɛ ayʋobʋ kɛŋ paae ayi’, 66 to 2 million) yʋʋma banɛ gaad la sa, sankan ka tiis da pɛ’ɛl dunia la wʋsa.[93] Dunia la da ma’ad waad yʋʋma 1.5 million banɛ gaad la ni la, ka da lɛn an yiiga, zʋmaana anaasi banɛ da kɛn’ yiiga na la, lin da ma’ad ka kuom gbilim la, ka tiis mɛ da sied.  Interglacials saŋa la, tiis da lɛn die tɛŋ la ka ka kuom da gbilim faae li la.[93]

Tiis nɛ ba kpinnim bɛllim

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Tiis anɛ nimmua paas bʋnvʋlnam banɛ bɛ la wʋsa ni,[94] ka an gbɛɛnsidi tis bʋnkɔnbid hali ka la'asid kilim sian'ar ka si'elnam nyaŋi su'adi ba mɛŋ anina. Epiphytic tiis banɛ an wʋʋ frem, mosses sieba, liverworts, orchids nɛ tisieba banɛ ka bʋnvʋlnam bɛɛ ba ni (tituunli, mistletoe) n lul wila ni,[95] bama la'am nɛ lichens, dɛn'ɛn mɔɔd nɛ fungi anɛ gbɛɛnsir tis bʋnvʋlnam la mɛŋ nɛ sieba mɛn hali nɛ bʋnkɔnbid gba. Ka vaanr nɛ puum nɛ wala bɛ saŋa kanɛ ka li nar wʋsa. Ma'asim bɛ tiis gbina ni, ka saŋa pamm mɔɔd nɛ tibibis yiti ani, nɛ vankpi'emis mɛ sʋʋi lu teŋin, nɛ dapɔn'ɔsa banɛ ka bʋnvʋlnam sieba mɛ bɛɛ li ni.[96][97] Tiis tab nɛ titan la kiŋ-kiŋ, ka saa ku'om kʋ nyaŋi zɔ kpiɛn tɔ'ɔtɔ, ka teŋ la kʋ kɔ'ɔŋi li pɔn'ɔsʋm bɛɛ kʋ'ʋlʋm, ka mɛ tʋmmir bɛ dabisir tʋʋlʋg nɛ ma'asʋg ka kɛt ka bʋnvʋlnam buudi-buudi bɛ ka gɛndig taaba.[98]

Tiis buudi bɛdegʋ sʋŋidi bʋnvʋlnam banɛ bɛɛ ba mɛŋ ni la. Gbɛɛnsir linɛ ni ka ba bɛ la, bʋnvʋlnam kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb bam 284 n bɛ na'asaal tiig kanɛ buon oak la ni (Eucalyptus obliqua).[99] Tiis banɛ kae teŋ la tiis bɛɛ ka an tisaans la pʋ mɔri ba buudi ka ba zu'oe, tituunli, united kingdom sʋ'ʋlʋmin la tikanɛ buon sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus) ka yi Europe ya-tuona la mɔri li buudi ka li pʋ zu'oe, la'am nɛ lin mɔr pa'ad ka li sʋŋid lichens, bryophytes nɛ epiphytes sieba mɛn.[100] Tiis anɛ kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb li ya'a ti ken banɛ ka bʋnkɔnbid ɔnbid ni na. Tiis nindaas anɛ kɔn'ɔb-kɔn'ɔb nɛ ba bɛdim nɛ ba niŋgbiŋ sin'im, hali ka bʋnvʋlnam banɛ pʋ tit wiim la gu'udi li ka na'azɔmnam kʋ paae lii.[101]

Bʋnkɔnbid nɛ tiis bɛllim ni wʋʋ mangrove swamps la, tiis mɔr tʋʋm linɛ maan zin'ig ka li an gbɛɛnsir, bɔzugɔ mangrove swamps nya'a la sadigim ka ninku'om linɛ zɔt tiind luos la sied ka gban'ad sa'ad banɛ ka ku'om ziid la, ka kɛ ka ku'om la zulum sie ka li an sʋ'ʋŋa tis mangrove ka ba nɔbigɛ. Mangrove swamps bama nɔbigidi lɛbid ku'om zin'ibanɛ an sʋm.[102] Mangrove swamps mɛ mɔr gu'ud ka cyclones nɛ tsunamis san'aʋŋ kʋ paae baa.[103]

Tiis buudi

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Amaa fʋ ya’a gɔsi di kimm yaliŋa, abɛ' tiwa’ama, kɔdu tiis, bɔɔdie tiis, kʋkparikɔnna wʋsa anɛ tiis[104].[105]

Mɔŋɔ tiig anɛ tiig kanɛ wan ka li wela la an diibi tisid saalib .....

Tiis tʋʋma

dɛmisim gbɛlima

Diib

Tiis anɛ bʋnkanɛ ka nidib bɛdigʋ dunia ni paamid ddib nwɛnɛ tiwalma’asa yiti ba ni. Apʋl nam, pɛɛ nam, plum nam, cherry nam nɛ leemu nam wʋsa anɛ zʋbanɛ ka ba kuodi kuosid zin’ikan ka ma’asʋg zu’oe ka tiwala bɛdigʋ mɛ bɛ pipirisin. Tiwala banɛ ka ba kuodi kuosid sieba lɛn anɛ dates, figs and olives. Ti Paamidi abɛ kpaam yitnɛ abɛ (Elaeis guineensis) wala ni. Kooko tiig (Theobroma cacao) wal mɛ anɛ dinɛ ka ti mɔri maan kooko nɛ kiokolet ka mɛ paamid Coffea arabica nɛ Coffea canephora yit Kofi tiig ni. Dunia wʋsa teŋkpɛmisin, nidib pi’isid tiwala ka di an diib ka ba dit.[106] Tiis bɛdigʋ wan wala banɛ ka nidib dit, ka sieba anɛ bɛda, ka sieba mɛ an kpaam-kpaam ka bɛ pak kanɛ kpi’em pʋʋgʋn. Bama sieba anɛ Kpukparig kɔŋ (Cocos nucifera), Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa), pecans (Carya illinoinensis), hazel nuts (Corylus), almonds (Prunus dulcis), walnuts (Juglans regia), pistachios (Pistacia vera) nɛ sieba bɛdigʋ. Ba anɛ banɛ mɔr biim hali ka mɔr protein, vitamins nɛ minerals la’anɛ fibre.[107] Banɛ mɔr kpaam la bɛdigʋ nwɛnɛ walnut, pistachio nɛ hazelnut kpaamnam anɛ banɛ ligiid zu’oe ka di yinɛ ba nyuugʋ bɛɛ di kɔn’ la yɛla, amaa ba pʋ yuugida ka san’amid.[108]

Bʋntuguda

Daad anɛ bʋnlin ka ba mɔri nyʋ’ɔd bugum ka li ka’ zinaa, li kas-kas anɛ banɛ bɛi tɛŋkpɛmisin la. Tɛŋ banɛ nam pʋ nɔbigi paae bɛn la ni, daad tɔn’e an bʋntugud kanɛ ka ba mɔri tʋgin ka pʋ lɛn mɔr bʋntugud sia ya’asɛ, daad ieb anɛ linɛ sa’amid saŋa hali, bɔzʋgɔ, sɛɛ ka fʋ kɛŋ lalig zin’ig ka nyaan nyɛ daad nwa’.[109] li la’aŋid nɛ ka pʋ mɔr gu’uda, bugum pielim ni. Tɛŋ banɛ paam nɔbigir bɛdigʋ la nii, ba mɔr bugum la’ad bɛdigʋ laŋid bugum ka daad nyɔ’ɔb anina anɛ fʋ mɛŋ bɔɔdim ka ka’a tilas anina. Daad da’aŋ nam banɛ bɛ zina nwa’ pʋ sa’amid daad wala, ka linɛ ka mɔr daadi maan gbila-gbila ka ba buon wood pellets mɛ bɛ ka ba mɔri nyɔ’ɔd.[110]

Ba nyɛt bugum saana yiti daadi la la’aŋ bugum ka tʋʋlig kpɛn’ɛba lɔkani ka pɛbisim kae bɛɛ dɔbibis banɛ ka ba mɛ’ ka bas vɔn’bil, ka pɛbisim bɛdigʋ pʋ kpɛ’ɛda. Ba na la’as daad la pa’al fɔɔli ka nyʋ’ɔe li nɛ bugum ka pɛbisim bɛdigʋ da kpɛ’ɛ li pʋʋginɛr. fʋ na dɔl suor sieba ka nyɛ saana la na nɔk saŋa wʋʋ hours piinɛnu’ (fifteen hours). Banɛ mɔr saana tʋm tʋʋma anɛ banɛ la’aŋid bugum sɛn’ɛd niim nɛ banɛ maan kʋnt nam ka li mɛ lɛn mɔr tʋʋma la’a kuosa maalig zin’igin nɛ zin’is bɛdigʋ.[111]

Daad

Timber, "tiis banɛ ka ba bʋt yɛ bam aal daad" ka ba waae li biel-biel (nɔk saw nwa’as) ye ba noki kpa’a dɔɔd.[112] Daad anɛ laʋk kanɛ an yɛlkpan, ka bɛi zin’ig wʋsa ka ba mɔri mɛɛd ka kpa’ad dɔɔd hali saalibi pin’ili mɛɛd dɔgbɛɛda saŋa sa. Daad banɛ ka ba maali ba yʋ’ʋn bɛ ka ba mɔri linɛ an titabiri tɔ’ɔŋidi li nɛ li da taaba bɛɛ la’asieba, ba tɔ’ɔidi li ka li yʋ’ʋn an bʋn yinne. Wʋrɔba la’ad yʋ’ʋn kɛna faan’e daad tʋʋm sieba.[113]

Ba mɔr daadi kpa’ad dɔ mɛɛda, bridges, trackways, piles, vɛ’ɛgid bugum wiins, ka gaad arʋŋ, railway sleepers, ka mɔri kpa’adi giligid ya’, ka kpa’adi sʋʋd concrete, pipes, ka dʋti li zugu mɛɛd dɔɔd, ka mɔri gbilimidi tugun. Yir mɛɛb pʋʋgin, ba mɔri li tɔmisid, ka mɔri tied mɛɛb, ka mɔri kpa’ad ka nyaan pa’al kɛmisi, ka mɔri pa’an dɔɔg zug, ka maal nɔbir yakir sʋor linɛ dʋt girimbisi zug, ka maan za’anɔya, ka maan takɔrnam, ka maan dakanɛ mɔrɛ sasit dɔɔd, parquet flooring, ka maali lus zanguom nɛ cladding.[114]

Ba mɔr daadi maan tɛrɔkɔ nam, pɔɔgin la’ad, anrimis, nɛ ariŋ bibis, ka mɛ mɔri mɛɛd ship. Ba mɔri li maan kʋgʋs, tʋʋma la’ad gba’asa, box nam, dadig, yʋʋma la’ad, tiraad, zaba la’ad, mankɛɛns, linɛ ya’an fʋʋd, saad, shoes, pɛɛd, turnery, kpi’ɛb, toy nam, pencil, rollers, cogs, wooden screws, barrels, kum daka, skittles, veneers, artificial limbs, oars, skis, daag diisiŋ, ninwisigir diema la’ad, nɛ daad ball nam.[114]

Ba mɔr daagi maan paper, ka lɛn mɔri maan cardboard ka lɛn bɔaridi ba maan la’ad wʋʋ fibreboard, hardboard, chipboard nɛ plywood.[114] Tiis banɛ pʋʋdi wan wala nɛ biili la buon softwood ka banɛ ka’a ala la mɛ an hardwood.[115]

Vɛnlim

Li tis banɛ gɔsid la’ad vɛnla yela yʋʋma kɔbiga banɛ gaad la, ka linɛ lɛn paas anɛ ba mɔr tiis daad la kpiɛ’t. Ba mɔr tiis banɛ vʋɛ bonsai ni nɛ tiis kpiɛ’b, tiis banɛ vʋɛ nɛ banɛ kpi wʋsaa kpiɛ’di maan la’a vɛnla.[116]

Bonsai

Bonsai (盆栽, lit. "tiig pɛsib")[117] li anɛ nidibi na gɔsid tiis bibisi pɛsidiba, ka li yinɛ China penjing ka  paae yʋʋm tusayi’ banɛ gaad la saŋa sa, buudi sieba malima mɛ anɛ alabuudi wʋʋ ban kpi’ɛ Vietnam hòn non bộ la. Bonsai la na’asaalin, la’an pa’al ye tiis banɛ ka ba niŋi ba kɔntɛɛna ni bɛɛ dʋkin.[118]

One gɔsid bonsai kʋ nyaŋi gba’ae li gbinnɛ ka one gɔsidi li la lɛɛ gɔs ka li mɔr nyɔɔd [119]. Bonsai tʋʋma gɔsid nɛ bunib saŋa sa nɛ tibibis yinnɛ bɛɛ ayi’ ka ti na pɛsid tibibis banɛ ka ba gʋ’ʋni kpba kontɛɛna pʋʋgin, li pin’in nɛ fʋ na nwa’ae ba, biili la yiiba, bɛɛ tibil kanɛ na nyaŋi sɛ’ ka li nɔbig. Bonsai na nyaŋi maali yi tiis banɛ ka ba til la an daag bɛɛ tutuus[120] banɛ na nyaŋi paae yʋʋm bɛɛ yʋʋm nɛ nya’aŋ linɛ sit busut tila ka fʋ na nyaŋi pɛsid o nya’a nɛ vaand ka o nyaŋi kpɛlim bɛ dug la pʋʋg. Tiis la sieba nyɛ yʋ’ʋr wʋʋ bonsai an siem la, bɔzʋgɔ, ba mɔr vanbibis vanpiim, ka li kɛt ka ba na nyaŋi bɛ wʋʋ bonsai, ka tiis banɛ ka ba vaand sʋʋgid mɔɔgin la na nyaŋi maal wala mɛn  ka ba sieba an Japanese maple, Japanese zelkova bɛɛ hornbeam.[121]

Tiig kpi’ɛb

Tii kpi’ɛb anɛ saalibi na nyaŋi zaŋ tiis banɛ vʋɛ nɛ tiis banɛ mɔr daad wʋsa, kpi’ɛsili ka li lieb bunsia linɛ vɛnl bɛɛ linɛ wan bʋnsia lɔsia. Suoya biela bɛ[122]  ka ba na nyaŋi kpi’ɛ tiig. Suor sia bɛɛ dɔlisidnɛ biel-biel, ka maalig suor yinne mɛ bɛi an tɔ’ɔ-tɔ’ɔ. suor kanɛ an biel-biel la pɛsid nɛ tiig la ya’am la, ka kɛt ka li kpa’a fʋ bɔɔd yɛ li kpa’a siem, fʋ bɔɔdim saŋa bɛn amaa, suor kanɛ kpɛlim maan tɔ’ɔ-tɔ’ɔ la, asɛɛ ka fʋ gba’ae tiig la gɔŋ fʋ bɔɔd ye li kpa’ lɔsia ka lɔ li nɔba la 2 to 3 m (6.6 to 9.8 ft) wa’alim bɛn, ka dɛmisi li ka li an fʋ bɔɔd ye li an siem la, ka daag la nan an da’pɔl, ka li ya’a kpɛ’ɛŋɛ, li na an wʋʋ fʋ bɔɔd ye li an sappi siem bɛn.[123] Banɛ kpi’ɛt la tita’am fi’isid nɛ tiis banɛ vʋɛ wila nɛ li tila, nɛ li nya’a, ka li vɛnl bɛɛ wan ban bɔɔd ye li wan bʋnsia, ka ba mɔr gba’ar ye ba nɔk tiis nwa’ mɛ ”ya’ banɛ vʋɛ”, ka tiis la wila la’as taaba ka li na kpi’ɛm wʋʋ zanguom nɛ nɛ kuom  kʋ nyaŋi kpɛ’ pʋʋginɛ ka li pʋʋgin la ka ba nɔk daad sa’at la yadig nɛ ya’at, ka pʋʋgin la an a stucco-like inner surface.[123]

Tiis kpi’ɛsig bɛ ka li na paae yʋʋma kɔbis ba’am-ba’am, ba sieba banɛ yʋʋg hali anɛ ban nɔk tiis banɛ vʋɛ nya’a la’asi maal birik ka ba lɔmisid, ka banɛ gʋri li an Khasi nidib banɛ bɛ Meghalaya, India sʋ’ʋlim, ka li anɛ rubber tiig (Ficus elastica) la nya’a.[124][125]

Nya’aŋ pak

Cork yinɛ nya’aŋ pak kanɛ ka cork oak (Quercus suber) tiig la maal la ni. Ba yisidi li tibanɛ nan vʋɛ ni, nɔɔr yinne, yʋʋm piiga wʋsa pʋʋgin, digil tʋʋma zin’ig kanɛ ka li kʋ san’am.[126] Dunia wʋsa cork nam, li gaat pʋsʋkʋ naamid Portugal tɛŋin na, ka ba mɔri li bɛdigʋ nɛ maan daam kɔliba lima.[127] Li tʋʋm banɛ paas anɛ floor tiles, bulletin boards, balls, ta’ada, cigarette nɔɔr, la’ad suusa, ka mɔri niŋid dʋta nami bɛ yʋʋma dʋʋdis ni.[127]

Oak nam sieba nya’aŋ pak la, ba da mɔri li tʋm nɛ Europe tiasid ningbina color. Baa ban la’am nɛ wala, ba mɔr tiis sieba pa’adi mɛ maan nwa’ zin’ig sieba. Bʋnlin sʋŋid ka yɛlkaŋa maan anɛ, tannin, linɛ ka ba yis tiis la nii maal o, ba nɔkid ningbina la niŋ tipkiɛ’ma nam kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb. Tannin la kɛt ka gbaʋŋ bɛɛ ningbiŋ la bʋgʋs ka kuom nɛ bʋnvʋlnam pʋ lɛn tɔn’e li.[128]

Tima kɔn’ɔb-kɔn’ɔb gaad ban kɔbiga nɛ pisi (120) ka ba maani ba yitnɛ tiis nɛ vaand nam ni, ka bɛdigʋ naam nɛ tiig nya’aŋ pak la nina.[129] Quinine yinɛ cinchona tiig ni (Cinchona) ka ba da nɔki li tieb malaria saŋa bɛdigʋ.[130] Aspirin da yina die nɛ sodium salicylate nɔba, li yinɛ willow tiis pak ni na (Salix) ka li da mɔr daamʋg sieba.[131] Tiim kanɛ kat cancer ka buon Paclitaxel la yinɛ taxol, ka bʋnlinɛ bɛ Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia) tiig pak ni la. Tiim sieba e yinɛ paw-paw tiig (Carica papaya), cassia tiig (Cassia spp.), cocoa tiig (Theobroma cacao), vʋm tiig (Camptotheca acuminata) nɛ downy birch tiig (Betula pubescens).[129]

Nya’aŋ pak la bɛ paper birch tiig (Betula papyrifera) banɛ da nɔki li tʋm bɛdigʋ yinɛ Americans. Wigwams da pɛ’ɛl nɛ li, ka ba da nɔki li maal anrima. Li tʋʋm sieba anɛ diib laas, tɔn’ɔs nam nɛ zingban’adib la’ad, yʋʋma la’ad, toys nɛ sledges.[132] zina nwa’, tiig nya’aŋ pak ka ba buon,  bark chips, ka li ka’ bɔɔdim tis banɛ maan daad la, ba mɔri li niŋid bʋnbʋta gbina kuom da kʋdigi ba gbina nii, ka li an bugulum tisi ba.[133]

Gbanvɛɛnsa.

dɛmisim gbɛlima
  1. ↑ Ehrenberg, Rachel (30 March 2018). "What makes a tree a tree?". Knowable Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-033018-032602. Archived from the original on 28 June 2021. Retrieved 21 June 2021.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "What is a tree?". Smartphone tour. University of Miami: John C. Gifford Arboretum. 2012. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 23 September 2014.
  3. ↑ Tokuhisa, Jim. "Tree definition". Newton Ask a Scientist. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
  4. ↑ Gschwantner, Thomas; et al. (2009). "Common tree definitions for national forest inventories in Europe". Silva Fennica. 43 (2): 303–321. doi:10.14214/sf.463.
  5. ↑ Keslick, John A. (2004). "Tree Biology Dictionary". Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  6. ↑ Gyde, Lund H. (1999). "A forest by any other name …". Environmental Science & Policy. 2 (2): 125–133. Bibcode:1999ESPol...2..125L. doi:10.1016/s1462-9011(98)00046-x.
  7. ↑ "Diversity and evolution of monocots" (PDF). University of Wisconsin. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
  8. ↑ Rodd, Tony; Stackhouse, Jennifer (2008). Trees: A Visual Guide. University of California Press. p. 112. ISBN 978-0-520-25650-7. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  9. ↑ "Monocot stems". The stem. University of Miami. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
  10. ↑ Jura-Morawiec, Joanna (2015). "Formation of amphivasal vascular bundles in Dracaena draco stem in relation to rate of cambial activity". Trees. 29 (5): 1493–1499. Bibcode:2015Trees..29.1493J. doi:10.1007/s00468-015-1230-3.
  11. ↑ Martin, Franklin; Sherman, Scott (2007). "Agroforestry principles" (PDF). Echo technical notes. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 July 2013. Retrieved 22 September 2014.
  12. ↑ "Community forestry rapid appraisal of tree and land tenure". Food and Agriculture Organisation. Archived from the original on 17 July 2018. Retrieved 1 October 2014.
  13. ↑ https://ecotree.green/en/blog/what-is-a-tree
  14. ↑ Lowman, V.; Rinker, H. Bruce (2004). Forest Canopies. Academic Press. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-08-049134-9. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016
  15. ↑ Petit, Rémy J.; Hampe, Arndt (2006). "Some Evolutionary Consequences of Being a Tree" (PDF). Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics. 37: 187–214. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.37.091305.110215. hdl:10261/64097. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2014.
  16. ↑ Koch, George W.; Sillett, Stephen C.; Jennings, Gregory M.; Davis, Stephen D. (2004). "The limits to tree height" (PDF). Letters to Nature. 428 (6985). Nature Publishing Group: 851–4. Bibcode:2004Natur.428..851K. doi:10.1038/nature02417. PMID 15103376. S2CID 11846291. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 October 2012. Retrieved 18 December 2021
  17. ↑ "These are 11 of the Oldest Things in the World". Time. Archived from the original on 17 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017
  18. ↑ Keslick, John A. (2004). "Tree Biology Dictionary". Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  19. ↑ Hawthorne, William; Lawrence, Anna (2012). Plant Identification: Creating User-Friendly Field Guides for Biodiversity Management. Routledge. p. 138. ISBN 978-1-84407-079-4. Archived from the original on 7 February 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  20. ↑ Hajela, Deepti (2 May 2008). "Scientists to capture DNA of trees worldwide for database". USA Today. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
  21. ↑ Kinver, Mark (5 April 2017). "World is home to '60,000 tree species'". BBC Science and Environment News. Archived from the original on 18 December 2021. Retrieved 18 December 2021
  22. ↑ Friis, Ib; Balslev, Henrik; Kongelige, Danske (2005). Plant diversity and complexity patterns: local, regional, and global dimensions: proceedings of an international symposium held at the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters in Copenhagen, Denmark, 25–28 May 2003. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. pp. 57–59. ISBN 978-87-7304-304-2.
  23. ↑ "The Gymnosperms (Conifers, cycads and allies)". The Plant List. 2010. Archived from the original on 24 August 2013. Retrieved 14 November 2017
  24. ↑ Biswas, Chhaya; Johri, B.M. (1997). The Gymnosperms. Springer. ISBN 978-3-662-13166-4.
  25. ↑ Hodson, Martin J.; Bryant, John A. (2012). Functional Biology of Plants. John Wiley. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-1-119-96887-0. Archived from the original on 2 September 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  26. ↑ "Transport in plants". BioTech. Cronodon Museum. 28 January 2007. Archived from the original on 14 October 2012. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
  27. ↑ Coder, Kim D. (1 August 1999). "Secondary Growth Anatomy and Tree Rings". Warnell School of Forest Resources, University of Georgia. Archived from the original on 8 September 2014. Retrieved 8 September 2014.
  28. ↑ "Evergreen". TheFreeDictionary. Archived from the original on 20 July 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2012
  29. ↑ "Deciduous". TheFreeDictionary. Archived from the original on 21 July 2012. Retrieved 7 August 2012
  30. ↑ "Detailed Scientific Descriptions, from A Naturalist's Flora of the Santa Monica Mountains and Simi Hills, California". National Park Service. Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 6 May 2022. herbaceous monocotyledons lack cambial secondary growth but may have tough leaves and hard, fibrous stems (e.g., palms and Hesperoyucca whipplei)
  31. ↑ Crowther, T. W.; Glick, H. B.; Covey, K. R.; Bettigole, C.; Maynard, D. S.; Thomas, S. M.; Smith, J. R.; Hintler, G.; Duguid, M. C. (2 September 2015). "Mapping tree density at a global scale" Nature. advance online publication (7568): 201–205. Bibcode:2015Natur.525..201C. doi:10.1038/nature14967. PMID 26331545. S2CID 4464317. Archived from the original on 1 January 2024. Retrieved 29 November 2023.
  32. ↑ Greenfieldboyce, Nell (2 September 2015). "Tree Counter Is Astonished By How Many Trees There Are". National Public Radio. Archived from the original on 8 March 2018. Retrieved 4 April 2018.
  33. ↑ Amos, Jonathan (3 September 2015). "Earth's trees number 'three trillion'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
  34. ↑ Ehrenberg, Rachel (2015). "Global count reaches 3 trillion trees". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2015.18287. S2CID 189415504. Archived from the original on 21 December 2019. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
  35. ↑ Pappas, Stephanie (May 2022). "Thousands of Tree Species Remain Unknown to Science". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 17 January 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
  36. ↑ "Climax Community". Encyclopedia of Earth. Archived from the original on 6 September 2014. Retrieved 28 June 2014.
  37. ↑ "Physical Environments Biosphere Vegetation Succession Moorlands" (PDF). Macaulay Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 September 2014. Retrieved 28 June 2014.
  38. ↑ Nelson, Rob. "The Taiga". Archived from the original on 6 May 2017. Retrieved 28 June 2014.
  39. ↑ "Northern Coniferous Forest Biome". The Forest Community. FORSite. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. Retrieved 28 June 2014. The diversity of tree species in the boreal forest is quite low, with black spruce (Picea mariana), larch or tamarack (Larix laricina), and white spruce (P. glauca) the most common species. The former two species generally occupy wet sites with poorly drained mineral or organic soils, while white spruce is the climatic climax species on sites that are drier and higher in nutrient content. Balsam fir (Abies balsamea) is a dominant tree species in the eastern half of the biome.
  40. ↑ "Taiga Biological Station: FAQ". Taiga Biological Station. 23 March 2010. Archived from the original on 13 December 2018. Retrieved 21 February 2011.
  41. ↑ "The forest biome: Boreal forest". University of California Museum of Paleontology. Archived from the original on 9 August 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
  42. ↑ Körner, Christian. "High elevation treeline research". University of Basel: Institute of Botany. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
  43. ↑ "Temperate Broadleaf and Mixed Forest Ecoregions". WWF. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2014.
  44. ↑ "Eastern Australia Temperate Forest". WWF. Archived from the original on 10 September 2014. Retrieved 10 September 2014.
  45. ↑ "The tropical rain forest". Biomes of the World. Marietta College. Archived from the original on 23 May 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2012
  46. ↑ "Grass savanna". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 20 November 2012. Retrieved 28 July 2012.
  47. ↑ Russell & Cutler 2003, pp. 14–15.
  48. ↑ Egli, S.; Brunner, I. (2011). "Mycorrhiza – a fascinating symbiosis in the forest". Forestknowledge. Swiss Federal Research Institute. Archived from the original on 9 May 2013. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
  49. ↑ van der Heijden, Marcel G. A. (15 April 2016). "Underground networking". Science. 352 (6283): 290–291. Bibcode:2016Sci...352..290H. doi:10.1126/science.aaf4694. [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier) hdl]:1874/344517. [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) PMID] [./Https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27081054 27081054.] S2CID [./Https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:133399719 133399719.]
  50. ↑ Puplett, Dan. [./Https://treesforlife.org.uk/into-the-forest/habitats-and-ecology/ecology/mycorrhizas/ "Mycorrhizas"]. Trees for Life. [./Https://web.archive.org/web/20191102063436/http://treesforlife.org.uk/into-the-forest/habitats-and-ecology/ecology/mycorrhizas/ Archived] from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved 15 July 2012
  51. ↑ Brundrett, Mark C. (2002). "Coevolution of roots and mycorrhizas of land plants". New Phytologist. 154 (2): 275–304. [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) doi]:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00397.x. [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier) PMID] [./Https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33873429 33873429].
  52. ↑ Benson, David. [./Https://web.archive.org/web/20180806064343/http://web.uconn.edu/mcbstaff/benson/Frankia/FrankiaHome.htm "Frankia and Actinorhizal Plants"]. University of Connecticut. Archived from [./Http://web.uconn.edu/mcbstaff/benson/Frankia/FrankiaHome.htm the original] on 6 August 2018. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
  53. ↑ Baluška, František; Mancuso, Stefano (2009). [./Https://books.google.com/books%3Fid=RTFMl0cArgAC&pg=PA83 Signaling in Plants]. Springer. pp. 83–84. [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ISBN] [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-89227-4 978-3-540-89227-4]. [./Https://web.archive.org/web/20200819211216/https://books.google.com/books%3Fid=RTFMl0cArgAC&pg=PA83 Archived] from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2020
  54. ↑ Hough, Walter A. (1 June 1965). [./Https://web.archive.org/web/20131209062328/http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/saf/fs/1965/00000011/00000002/art00020 "Root extension of Individual trees in surface soils of a Natural Longleaf Pine-Turkey Oak Stand"]. Forest Science. 11 (2): 223–242. Archived from [./Http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/saf/fs/1965/00000011/00000002/art00020 the original] on 9 December 2013.
  55. ↑ Ng, Peter K. L.; Sivasothi, N., eds. (2001). [./Http://mangrove.nus.edu.sg/guidebooks/text/1043.htm "How plants cope in the mangroves"]. Mangroves of Singapore. [./Https://web.archive.org/web/20120522185105/http://mangrove.nus.edu.sg/guidebooks/text/1043.htm Archived] from the original on 22 May 2012. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
  56. ↑ Thomas, Peter (2000). [./Https://books.google.com/books%3Fid=w6bUF8bOfKEC&pg=PA108 Trees: Their Natural History]. Cambridge University Press. p. 108. [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) ISBN] [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-45963-1 978-0-521-45963-1]. [./Https://web.archive.org/web/20200820005841/https://books.google.com/books%3Fid=w6bUF8bOfKEC&pg=PA108 Archived] from the original on 20 August 2020. Retrieved 29 May 2020.
  57. ↑ Crook, M. J.; Ennos, A. R.; Banks, J. R. (1997). "The function of buttress roots: a comparative study of the anchorage systems of buttressed (Aglaia and Nephelium ramboutan species) and non-buttressed (Mallotus wrayi) tropical trees". Journal of Experimental Botany. 48 (9): 1703–1716. [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) doi]:10.1093/jxb/48.9.1703.
  58. ↑ Ng, Peter K. L.; Sivasothi, N., eds. (2001). [./Http://mangrove.nus.edu.sg/guidebooks/text/1043.htm "How plants cope in the mangroves"]. Mangroves of Singapore. [./Https://web.archive.org/web/20120522185105/http://mangrove.nus.edu.sg/guidebooks/text/1043.htm Archived] from the original on 22 May 2012. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
  59. ↑ King, David A. (1990). "The Adaptive Significance of Tree Height". The American Naturalist. 135 (6): 809–828. [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) doi]:10.1086/285075. [./Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) S2CID] [./Https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85160969 85160969]. competition for light is the primary factor responsible for the evolution and maintenance of the arboreal life form. The resulting evolutionarily stable growth pattern maximizes the competitive ability of the individual
  60. ↑ Russell & Cutler 2003, pp. 16–17
  61. ↑ https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22941932-90001338https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22941932-90001338
  62. ↑ https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22941932-90001338https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22941932-90001338
  63. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree#CITEREFRussellCutler2003
  64. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-201-75054-6
  65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Russell & Cutler 2003, pp. 18–19.
  66. ↑ Battey, N. H. (August 2003). "August-learning about summer". Journal of Experimental Botany. 54 (389): 1797–1799. doi:10.1093/jxb/erg225. PMID 12869517.
  67. ↑ Campbell, Neil A.; Reece, Jane B. (2002). Biology (6th ed.). Pearson Education. pp. 729–730. ISBN 978-0-201-75054-6.
  68. ↑ Russell & Cutler 2003, pp. 16, 27.
  69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 Pessarakli, Mohammad (2005). Handbook of Photosynthesis. CRC Press. pp. 717–739. ISBN 978-0-8247-5839-4. Archived from the original on 21 May 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  70. ↑ Starr, Cecie; Evers, Christine; Starr, Lisa (2010). Biology: Concepts and Applications. Cengage Learning. p. 734. ISBN 978-1-4390-4673-9. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  71. ↑ Bullock, Stephen H.; Solis-Magallanes, J. Arturo (March 1990). "Phenology of canopy trees of a tropical deciduous forest in Mexico". Biotropica. 22 (1): 22–35. Bibcode:1990Biotr..22...22B. doi:10.2307/2388716. JSTOR 2388716.
  72. ↑ Beentje, Henk (2010). The Kew Plant Glossary. Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. ISBN 978-1-84246-422-9 p. 87.
  73. ↑ Page, Christopher N. (1990). "Phyllocladaceae" pp. 317–319. In: Klaus Kubitzki (general editor); Karl U. Kramer and Peter S. Green (volume editors) The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants volume I. Springer-Verlag: Berlin; Heidelberg, Germany. ISBN 978-0-387-51794-0
  74. ↑ "Pollination". Trees for Life. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
  75. ↑ Nathan, Ran; Seidler, Tristram G.; Plotkin, Joshua B. (2006). "Seed Dispersal and Spatial Pattern in Tropical Trees". PLOS Biology. 4 (11): e344. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040344. PMC 1609130. PMID 17048988.
  76. ↑ Walker, Laurence C. (1997). Forests: A Naturalist's Guide to Woodland Trees. University of Texas Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-292-79112-1. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  77. ↑ 77.0 77.1 77.2 Meng, Alan; Meng, Hui. "How seeds are dispersed". Interactive Assessment Worksheets. Archived from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  78. ↑ Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight (1999). North American Terrestrial Vegetation. Cambridge University Press. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-521-55986-7. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  79. ↑ van der Neut, Marcus. "The White Mangrove". naturefoundationsxm.org. Nature Foundation, St. Maarten. Archived from the original on 25 January 2012.
  80. ↑ Yang, Suann. "Seed Dispersal by Animals: Behavior Matters". BEHAVE: Behavioral Education for Human, Animal, Vegetation and Ecosystem Management. Archived from the original on 9 December 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  81. ↑ Levey, Douglas J.; Silva, Wesley R.; Galetti, Mauro (2002). Seed Dispersal and Frugivory: Ecology, Evolution and Conservation. CABI. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-85199-525-0. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  82. ↑ Ruxton, Graeme D.; Schaefer, H. Martin (2012). "The conservation physiology of seed dispersal". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 367 (1596): 1708–1718. doi:10.1098/rstb.2012.0001. PMC 3350653. PMID 22566677.
  83. ↑ Sager, Kim. "Whitebark Pine Seeds, Red Squirrels, and Grizzly Bears: An Interconnected Relationship". BEHAVE: Behavioral Education for Human, Animal, Vegetation and Ecosystem Management. Archived from the original on 9 December 2013. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  84. ↑ Evert, Ray F.; Eichhorn, Susan E. (2004). Biology of Plants. Macmillan. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-7167-1007-3. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  85. ↑ Parkin, Dave; Parkin, Marilyn. "Fire". How do the seeds disperse to form new plants?. Zephyrus. Archived from the original on 22 June 2012. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  86. ↑ Baskin, Carol C.; Baskin, Jerry M. (2001). Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography, and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. Elsevier. pp. 121, 260. ISBN 978-0-12-080263-0. Archived from the original on 22 December 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  87. ↑ "Gymnosperms". University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Archived from the original on 9 October 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2012.
  88. ↑ Bhatnagar, S. P.; Moitra, Alok (1996). Gymnosperms. New Age International. p. 371. ISBN 978-81-224-0792-1. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  89. ↑ Beck, Charles B. (1960). "The identity of Archaeopteris and Callixylon". Brittonia. 12 (4): 351–368. Bibcode:1960Britt..12..351B. doi:10.2307/2805124. JSTOR 2805124. S2CID 27887887.
  90. ↑ Jiao, Y.; Wickett, N. J.; Ayyampalayam, S.; et al. (2011). "Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms". Nature. 473 (7345): 97–100. Bibcode:2011Natur.473...97J. doi:10.1038/nature09916. PMID 21478875. S2CID 4313258.
  91. ↑ Gnaedinger, Silvia (2012). "Ginkgoalean woods from the Jurassic of Argentina: Taxonomic considerations and palaeogeographical distribution". Geobios. 45 (2): 187–198. Bibcode:2012Geobi..45..187G. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2011.01.007. hdl:11336/25674.
  92. ↑ Arens, Nan C. (1998). "Ginkgo". Lab IX; Ginkgo, Cordaites and the Conifers. University of California Museum of Paleontology. Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
  93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 "Tree evolution". Tree Biology. Royal Forestry Society. 2012. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 25 July 2012.
  94. ↑ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree#cite_note-Lowman-101
  95. ↑ Zotz, Gerhard (2016). Plants on Plants – The Biology of Vascular Epiphytes. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-39237-0. Archived from the original on 19 August 2020. Retrieved 14 November 2017.
  96. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20171115083431/http://enviropol.com/index.php/forest-structurehttps://web.archive.org/web/20171115083431/http://enviropol.com/index.php/forest-structure
  97. ↑ ..http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/forest-layers-stories-and-stratification.htmlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171115083445/http://www.worldatlas.com/articles/forest-layers-stories-and-stratification.html
  98. ↑ http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y2328e/y2328e00.htmhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190131070800/http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y2328E/y2328e00.htm
  99. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20121204021347/http://www.outreachecology.com/go/deliver/YoavDanielBarNessICE2004.pdf
  100. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20130221090223/http://members.multimania.co.uk/WoodyPlantEcology/docs/QJF87-143.pdf
  101. ↑ https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev-ento-041720-075234https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Entomology
  102. ↑ https://web.archive.org/web/20140904153735/http://ocw.unu.edu/international-network-on-water-environment-and-health/unu-inweh-course-1-mangroves/Importance-of-mangroves.pdf
  103. ↑ http://www.nepa.gov.jm/policies/draft/Mangroves%20and%20Coastal%20Wetland%20Protection/MANGROVE%20AND%20COASTAL%20WETLANDS%20PROTECTION%20part%201%20to%203.htm
  104. ↑ https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living-world/2018/what-makes-tree-tree
  105. ↑ http://people.umass.edu/psoil370/Syllabus-files/Agroforestry_Principles.pdf
  106. ↑ Campbell, B. (1993). "Monetary valuation of tree-based resources in Zimbabwe". FAO: Forestry Department. Archived from the original on 1 May 2013. Retrieved 13 September 2012.
  107. ↑ "Walnuts are the healthiest nut, say scientists". BBC News. 28 March 2011. Archived from the original on 24 September 2017. Retrieved 21 September 2014.
  108. ↑ Simmons, Marie (2008). Things Cooks Love. Andrews McMeel. p. 295. ISBN 978-0-7407-6976-4.
  109. ↑ "Women watch: International Day of Rural Women". United Nations Inter-agency Network on Women and Gender Equality. 15 October 2008. Archived from the original on 17 December 2011. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
  110. ↑ "Burn Wise". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 8 May 2013. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  111. ↑ "How do you make charcoal?". Woodlands.co.uk. Woodland Investment Management. Archived from the original on 4 June 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  112. ↑ "timber | trees that are grown in order to produce wood". www.merriam-webster.com. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 3 September 2015.
  113. ↑ Scharai-Rad, Mohammad; Welling, Johannes (2002). "Environmental and energy balances of wood products and substitutes". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 9 November 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  114. ↑ 114.0 114.1 114.2 "Wood utilization". Appalachian Hardwood Manufacturers. Archived from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  115. ↑ Pywell, Nancy (7 October 2003). "Glossary of Forestry Terms". Archived from the original on 12 July 2012. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  116. ↑ Miss Cellania (28 February 2012). "10 Artists Who Work in Trees". Mental Floss. Archived from the original on 3 August 2014. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
  117. ↑ Gustafson, Herbert L. (1995). Miniature Bonsai. Sterling Publishing Company. p. 9. ISBN 0-8069-0982-X.
  118. ↑ Squire, David (2004). The Bonsai Specialist. New Holland Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-84330-543-9. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  119. ↑ Chan, Peter (1987). Bonsai Masterclass. Sterling Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-8069-6763-9.
  120. ↑ Owen, Gordon (1990). The Bonsai Identifier. Quintet Publishing. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-88665-833-5.
  121. ↑ Squire, David (2004). The Bonsai Specialist. New Holland Publishers. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-84330-543-9. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016.
  122. ↑ Gunnarsson, Mörður (2012). "Living Furniture". Cottage and Garden: 28–29.Gunnarsson, Mörður (2012). "Living Furniture". Cottage and Garden: 28–29.
  123. ↑ 123.0 123.1 Dwell. Dwell, LLC. February 2007. p. 96. Archived from the original on 4 March 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2016
  124. ↑ "The natural root bridges of Cherrapunji, India". Pictures World. 7 August 2012. Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
  125. ↑ Merchant, Brian (28 September 2010). "Living Bridges in India Have Grown for 500 Years". Treehugger. Archived from the original on 23 October 2014. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
  126. ↑ "Cork Flooring is Environmentally Sustainable". AZoM.com. 27 February 2006. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  127. ↑ 127.0 127.1 Calheiros e Meneses; J. L. "The cork industry in Portugal". University of Wisconsin. Archived from the original on 14 September 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  128. ↑ "3. Tanneries, Description of the Tanning Process". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 22 August 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  129. ↑ 129.0 129.1 Taylor, Leslie (13 October 2000). "Plant Based Drugs and Medicines". The Healing Power of Rainforest Herbs. Archived from the original on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  130. ↑ "Guidelines for the treatment of malaria" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 October 2015. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  131. ↑ Sneader, W. (2000). "The discovery of aspirin: A reappraisal". BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.). 321 (7276): 1591–1594. doi:10.1136/bmj.321.7276.1591. PMC 1119266. PMID 11124191.
  132. ↑ Prindle, Tara (1994). "Uses for birch bark". NativeTech: Native American Technology and Art. Archived from the original on 18 September 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  133. ↑ Johnson, Aidan (25 January 2011). "Choosing the right potting media for your orchid". Orchid growing secrets. Archived from the original on 15 November 2012. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
Retrieved from "https://kus.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tiis&oldid=13715"